Sources

Every claim on this site traces to one of these. Each entry says what it supports.

Alliance for European Flax-Linen & Hemp, Flax growing and expertise (report)
Industry description of the European flax cycle: March–April sowing, about 100 days to maturity, July pulling, field retting July–September, then scutching, hackling and spinning (wet spinning in warm water).
Alliance for European Flax-Linen & Hemp (2026), key figures (report)
Industry figures: three quarters of world long-fibre flax is grown in France, Belgium and the Netherlands; at least 220,000 ha in Europe in 2026, 85–90% of it in France.
bluesign technologies (2026), PFAS in clothing: bans and timeline (standard)
bluesign restricted PFAS in all APPROVED materials from January 2025 and in approved products from January 2026, except essential use.
Canopy, CanopyStyle campaign (accessed 2026-10-31) (report)
Canopy estimates more than 300 million trees are cut down each year for man-made cellulosic fabrics such as viscose, rayon, modal and lyocell.
Dictionary.com, linen (noun) (standard)
"Linens" also means bedding and tablecloths made of linen or a substitute such as cotton.
US EPA CompTox Chemicals Dashboard (2026), PFASSTRUCTV6: PFAS structures in DSSTox (dataset)
EPA's structure-based PFAS list contains 21,029 chemicals (January 2026), excluding polymers and mixtures.
US Federal Trade Commission, 16 CFR Part 303, Rules and Regulations under the Textile Fiber Products Identification Act (§§303.6, 303.12, 303.16, 303.27, 303.43) (regulation)
Cotton is a required generic name; 100% or All only if wholly one fiber, with no tolerance; blends may deviate 3 percentage points; structural thread and minor trims exempt; elastic and decoration excluded only with a disclosure.
W. L. Gore & Associates, Next-Gen GORE-TEX Products with ePE Membrane (report)
Gore's ePE membrane is sold as PFAS-free, meaning made without intentionally added PFAS but possibly containing traces.
Global Standard gGmbH (2026), Global Organic Textile Standard (GOTS) Version 8.0 (standard)
GOTS 8.0, published March 2026 and effective 1 March 2027, keeps the 95% and 70% grades and the virgin polyester ban.
Global Standard gGmbH (2026), GOTS Annual Report 2025 (report)
17,800 GOTS-certified facilities in 95 countries as of 1 January 2026.
IARC, List of classifications by cancer sites with sufficient or limited evidence in humans, IARC Monographs Volumes 1–141 (dataset)
Formaldehyde (Group 1) has sufficient evidence for nasopharyngeal cancer and myeloid leukaemia.
National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (2026), Perfluoroalkyl and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) (report)
The carbon-fluorine bond is one of the strongest, so PFAS do not degrade easily; PFAS are used to make clothes stain-resistant.
OEKO-TEX (2026), Annual Report 2025/2026 (report)
In 2025/26 OEKO-TEX issued 36,592 STANDARD 100 certificates and 20,427 MADE IN GREEN labels.
OEKO-TEX, OEKO-TEX MADE IN GREEN (standard)
MADE IN GREEN requires a STANDARD 100, ORGANIC COTTON or LEATHER STANDARD certified product made in STeP-certified facilities, traceable by a unique product ID.
OEKO-TEX Service GmbH (2026), OEKO-TEX Restricted Substance List, Version 03.2026 (standard)
STANDARD 100 limits: formaldehyde not detectable (under 16 mg/kg), 75, 150, 300 mg/kg for classes I–IV; PFAS no intentional use, 25 µg/kg each, 250 µg/kg sum; arylamines 20 mg/kg; allergenic disperse dyes 50 mg/kg; extractable antimony 30 mg/kg; bisphenols B, F, S, AF 200 mg/kg.
OEKO-TEX Service GmbH (2026), OEKO-TEX STANDARD 100, Edition 01.2026 (standard)
STANDARD 100 applies to textiles of any fiber, including cotton/polyester and recycled PET polyester, defines product classes I–IV, is not a quality label, covers the as-produced state and does not certify ecologically responsible production or organic status.
OEKO-TEX, OEKO-TEX STeP (standard)
STeP certifies production facilities on chemical management, environmental performance, social responsibility, quality and health and safety.
USDA Foreign Agricultural Service (2026), Cotton: World Markets and Trade, October 2026 (dataset)
World cotton production 122.05 million 480-lb bales in 2025/26; China 35.8M, India 23.8M, Brazil 18.75M, US 13.9M.
USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service (2026), Crop Production, 9 October 2026 (dataset)
US American Pima: 405,000 bales in 2025; 383,000 bales forecast for 2026, of which California 290,000, Texas 45,000, Arizona 30,000, New Mexico 18,000.
Alliance for European Flax-Linen & Hemp, Environmental features of European Flax-Linen (report)
Industry statement: Western European flax is generally grown without irrigation, dew-retted, with low fertiliser and pesticide inputs and no GM varieties.
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (2025), Toxicological Profile for Carbon Disulfide (review)
Viscose rayon production is the most prominent industrial source of carbon disulfide; neurological effects are a known and cardiovascular effects a presumed human health effect of inhaled CS2, based mostly on viscose worker studies.
Egyptian Cotton Association, About Egyptian Cotton Association (standard)
The Egyptian Cotton logo is owned by Egypt's Ministry of Trade and Industry and ALCOTEXA and licensed by the association, with DNA testing via Bureau Veritas.
Egyptian Cotton Association (2025), Egyptian cotton figures, 20 November 2025 (dataset)
Extra long staple (Extra Giza) was 8,678 of 88,567 t (about 9.8%) of Egypt's 2024/25 cotton; the rest was long staple.
Espartero LJL et al. (2025), Dermal permeation of perfluoroalkyl substances in human skin: an in-vitro study, Chemosphere (study)
In human skin in vitro, short-chain PFAS permeated up to 7.0% in 24 h; no long-chain PFAS penetrated.
République française (2025), Loi n° 2025-188 du 27 février 2025 visant à protéger la population des risques liés aux PFAS (regulation)
France bans PFAS in consumer clothing textiles, footwear and waterproofing agents from 1 January 2026, and in all textiles from 1 January 2030, with exemptions.
Vats P (2025), Specialty Cotton Report, International Cotton Advisory Committee (report)
ELS and LS definitions are not globally standardized; ELS plus LS are about 1–2% of world cotton (390,000 t in 2024/25).
Kranthi KR (2025), Water Footprint in Cotton 2020–2024: A Global Analysis (summary note), International Cotton Advisory Committee (report)
2020–24: 44% of cotton area irrigated and 56% rainfed (producing more than 45% of cotton); consumptive water footprint 6,238 L per kg lint, of which 1,593 L irrigation; cotton uses 1.59% of agricultural irrigation water.
Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, Japan (2025), Overview of the Criteria for Regulating Household Products Containing Harmful Substances (unofficial translation) (regulation)
Japan limits formaldehyde to 16 ppm in textiles for babies up to 24 months and 75 ppm in underwear, nightclothes, gloves and hosiery.
Textile Exchange (2025), Materials Market Report 2025 (report)
132 Mt of fiber produced in 2024. Polyester 59% (77.7 Mt), about 88% fossil-based, about 12% recycled (mostly from bottles); polyamide (nylon) about 5% (7.0 Mt), 2.3% recycled; cotton about 24.5 Mt in 2023/24, 19% of fiber (down from 20%), organic about 706 kt (2.9% of virgin cotton, India-regulation 437 kt), Better Cotton about 9% alone and 23% with equivalent schemes; man-made cellulosics 8.4 Mt (about 6%), viscose 80% of them, lyocell 5%, modal about 3%, cupro 0.2%, primarily from wood, 35% at known risk of ancient and endangered forest sourcing (Canopy data); flax about 0.3% (0.3 Mt), about 70% of fiber flax grown in Europe.
USDA Economic Research Service (2025), Recent Trends in GE Adoption (dataset)
2025 US upland cotton: 93% herbicide-tolerant, 91% Bt, about 87% both.
USDA Foreign Agricultural Service (2025), Egypt: Cotton and Products Annual, GAIN report EG2025-0012 (report)
Egyptian Giza varieties are classed ELS or LS; Upper Egypt LS is marketed as medium staple because it is spun into the same yarns as Upland.
Wicks A et al. (2025), Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in Reusable Feminine Hygiene Products, Environmental Science & Technology Letters 12(8):924-929 (study)
Of 59 reusable hygiene products screened, 19 underwent targeted analysis and all contained PFAS.
US Federal Trade Commission, 16 CFR §303.17, Use of fiber trademarks and generic names on labels (regulation)
A generic fiber name may not be used on a label to imply, directly or indirectly, that a product contains a fiber it does not.
US Federal Trade Commission, 16 CFR §303.6, Generic names of fibers to be used (regulation)
US labels must name every fiber at 5% or more by its generic name, e.g. cotton, rayon, silk, linen, nylon.
American Academy of Dermatology, Eczema: tips to help your child feel better (report)
AAD advises washing a child's new clothes before wearing to remove excess dyes and fabric finishers.
ATSDR/CDC (2024), Fast Facts: PFAS in the U.S. Population (report)
Nearly all people in the US have PFAS in their blood; blood PFOS fell more than 85% and PFOA more than 70% from 1999–2000 to 2018–2019.
Better Cotton (2024), Summary of Findings of the Independent Audit, 23 April 2024 (report)
Audit found three named farms in compliance; scope did not extend to the agribusinesses that own them.
Earthsight (2024), Fashion Crimes: The European retail giants linked to dirty Brazilian cotton (report)
Better Cotton-certified cotton from SLC and Horita in Bahia, Brazil, linked to illegal deforestation and land grabbing.
US EPA (2024), Inventory of U.S. Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Sinks: 1990-2022, Section 4.8 Adipic Acid Production (report)
84% of US adipic acid is used to make nylon 6,6; adipic acid starts from the oxidation of cyclohexane.
US EPA (2024), Final PFAS National Primary Drinking Water Regulation (regulation)
EPA set enforceable limits of 4.0 ppt for PFOA and PFOS in drinking water, with a health goal (MCLG) of zero, announced 10 April 2024.
European Commission (2024), Commission Regulation (EU) 2024/2462 amending Annex XVII to REACH as regards PFHxA (regulation)
From 10 October 2026 the EU restricts PFHxA and related substances in consumer clothing textiles; other textiles from 10 October 2027.
US Food and Drug Administration, 21 CFR §177.1500, Nylon resins (regulation)
Nylon 66 is made by condensing hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid; nylon 6 by polymerizing epsilon-caprolactam.
US Federal Trade Commission, Textile Fiber Products Identification Act rules, 16 CFR §303.7, Generic names and definitions for manufactured fibers (regulation)
Legal US definitions of manufactured fibers: polyester (a long chain synthetic polymer of at least 85% ester of a substituted aromatic carboxylic acid); nylon (a long-chain synthetic polyamide); acrylic; rayon (a manufactured fiber composed of regenerated cellulose, with lyocell a permitted name for solvent-spun rayon); ISO 2076 generic names incorporated by reference.
Kranthi KR (2024), Usage of Highly Hazardous Pesticides: A Cotton Perspective, The ICAC Recorder XLII(2), International Cotton Advisory Committee (report)
2018–2022: cotton on 2.3% of arable land used 4.0% of pesticides, 10.51% of insecticides and 3.1% of herbicides; 13.04% of pesticides used on cotton are highly hazardous; data from Bayer Crop Science.
Lenzing AG (2024), TENCEL Modal fiber claim-proof snapshot (report)
TENCEL is a trademark of Lenzing AG; TENCEL Modal is a wood-derived regenerated cellulose fiber.
National Cotton Council of America (industry body), Cotton: From Field to Fabric (report)
Harvest, module, gin (saws pull lint through ribs, separating seed), about 500 lb bale, classing, opening, carding, drawing, roving, spinning.
Ragnarsdóttir O, Abou-Elwafa Abdallah M, Harrad S (2024), Dermal bioavailability of perfluoroalkyl substances using in vitro 3D human skin equivalent models, Environment International (study)
In 3D human skin models, up to 58.9% of an applied short-chain PFAS dose was absorbed; long-chain PFAS were retained in skin tissue (methanol vehicle, in vitro).
USDA National Organic Program, 7 CFR §205.105, Allowed and prohibited substances, methods, and ingredients in organic production and handling (regulation)
Organic production excludes synthetic substances not on the National List, excluded methods (genetic engineering), ionizing radiation and sewage sludge.
Better Cotton, Mass Balance explained (standard)
Under mass balance, a product carrying the Better Cotton claim may not contain physical Better Cotton.
Better Cotton (2023), Principles and Criteria v3.0 (standard)
Prohibits Stockholm, Rotterdam and Montreal-listed and WHO class 1a/1b pesticides; phases out other highly hazardous pesticides; technology neutral on GM seed.
Dickens et al. v. Thinx, Inc., No. 1:22-cv-04286-JMF (S.D.N.Y. June 8, 2023), Order Granting Final Approval of Class Action Settlement (regulation)
Settlement of up to $5M over claims Thinx underwear contained PFAS; Thinx denied liability and committed to measures so PFAS are not intentionally added.
Global Standard gGmbH (2023), Global Organic Textile Standard (GOTS) Version 7.0 (standard)
Organic grade needs at least 95% and made with organic at least 70% certified organic fiber; virgin polyester and acrylic prohibited; recycled synthetics up to 20%, virgin nylon and elastane up to 10%; formaldehyde, PFAS, GMO, carcinogenic-amine azo dye, heavy metal and synthetic antimicrobial inputs prohibited; oxygen bleach only; product residues formaldehyde under 16 mg/kg, extractable antimony under 0.2 mg/kg; social criteria.
IARC Monographs Volume 131 (2023), Cobalt, antimony compounds, and weapons-grade tungsten alloy (review)
Antimony trioxide classified Group 2A, probably carcinogenic to humans.
IARC Monographs Volume 135 (2023), PFOA and PFOS; summarized in Zahm S et al., The Lancet Oncology 25(1):16–17, 2024 (review)
PFOA classified Group 1, carcinogenic to humans (limited human evidence for kidney and testicular cancer); PFOS Group 2B.
Jareczek JJ, Grover CE, Wendel JF (2023), Cotton fiber as a model for understanding shifts in cell development under domestication, Frontiers in Plant Science 14:1146802 (review)
G. hirsutum (Upland) is about 90% of commercial cotton production; cotton was domesticated four separate times; G. barbadense is Pima cotton.
Roth J et al. (2023), Best Available Techniques (BAT) Reference Document for the Textiles Industry, European Commission Joint Research Centre (report)
Easy-care (no-iron, wrinkle-resistant) cross-linkers are made from urea, melamine, glyoxal and/or formaldehyde and may release formaldehyde; hydrogen peroxide is the most common cotton bleach.
OEKO-TEX Association (2023), OEKO-TEX new regulations 2023, press release (standard)
OEKO-TEX announced a general ban on PFAS in textiles, leather and footwear.
Royer SJ, Greco F, Kogler M, Deheyn DD (2023), Not so biodegradable: Polylactic acid and cellulose/plastic blend textiles lack fast biodegradation in marine waters, PLOS ONE 18(5):e0284681 (study)
Natural and regenerated cellulose fibers fully biodegraded in seawater within about 35 days; PET and polypropylene did not degrade over 428 days.
Schymanski EL et al. (2023), Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) in PubChem: 7 Million and Growing, Environmental Science & Technology (study)
Quotes the OECD 2021 PFAS definition (at least one fully fluorinated methyl or methylene carbon); PubChem holds over 7 million PFAS under it.
Supima, Supima Licensing Program and AQRe Project (standard)
Supima tracks licensed cotton bale to yarn (TextileGenesis) and has Oritain test random samples for trace elements and isotopes.
Supima (American Pima growers' association), SUPIMA Trademark Guidelines (standard)
The SUPIMA mark requires 100% US Pima cotton, with exceptions for some categories such as socks; licensed users only.
US Federal Trade Commission (2022), FTC Uses Penalty Offense Authority to Seek Largest-Ever Civil Penalty for Bogus Bamboo Marketing from Kohl's and Walmart (regulation)
Kohl's ($2.5M) and Walmart ($3M) paid civil penalties for marketing rayon as bamboo; FTC said converting bamboo into rayon requires toxic chemicals and results in hazardous pollutants.
Global Organic Textile Standard (2022), Statement on New York Times article (standard)
GOTS is not a farm standard and does not certify raw cotton; farms are certified under national organic regulations.
Herrero M et al. (2022), Early-Life Exposure to Formaldehyde through Clothing, Toxics 10(7):361 (study)
Formaldehyde was found in 20% of 120 garments for pregnant women and young children; after one quick cold wash none of the 20 highest had detectable formaldehyde.
Linauskiene K et al. (2022), Patch test results to extracts of synthetic garments in textile dye positive patients, Contact Dermatitis 87(4):325-330 (study)
Disperse dyes, used to colour polyester, acrylic, acetate and polyamide, are the most common cause of textile allergic contact dermatitis; 9 of 10 dye-allergic patients reacted to synthetic garment extracts.
National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (2022), Guidance on PFAS Exposure, Testing, and Clinical Follow-Up (report)
Sufficient evidence links PFAS to decreased antibody response, dyslipidemia, decreased infant and fetal growth, and kidney cancer in adults.
New York Environmental Conservation Law §37-0121, Apparel containing PFAS (regulation)
New York bans the sale of new apparel with intentionally added PFAS from 1 January 2025, and outdoor apparel for severe wet conditions from 1 January 2028.
Rodgers KM et al. (2022), How Well Do Product Labels Indicate the Presence of PFAS in Consumer Items Used by Children and Adolescents?, Environmental Science & Technology (study)
In 93 items, targeted PFAS were found only in products labeled water- and/or stain-resistant; green or nontoxic claims did not indicate PFAS absence.
Toxic-Free Future (2022), Toxic Convenience: The hidden costs of forever chemicals in stain- and water-resistant products (report)
72% of 47 products marketed as stain- or water-resistant contained PFAS; none of the products without those claims did.
USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service (2022), 2021 Agricultural Chemical Use Survey: Cotton (dataset)
2021 US cotton: herbicides on 96% of planted acres, insecticides on 39%; glyphosate the most widely applied.
van der Veen I et al. (2022), Fate of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances from Durable Water-Repellent Clothing during Use, Environmental Science & Technology 56(9):5886-5897 (study)
Polyester and polyamide fabrics with C6 and C8 side-chain fluorinated DWRs released PFAS through ageing and washing; washing could increase extractable volatile PFAS.
Xia C et al. (2022), Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in North American School Uniforms, Environmental Science & Technology (study)
Fluorine was detected in 65% of 72 stain-resistant children's textiles and PFAS in all 57 analysed; 100% cotton uniforms had higher PFAS, likely needing more treatment.
Biver M, Turner A, Filella M (2021), Antimony release from polyester textiles by artificial sweat solutions, Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 119:104824 (study)
Antimony catalyst residue in polyester textiles moves into artificial sweat; more in warm, acidic sweat.
European Commission (2021), Commission guidelines on single-use plastic products in accordance with Directive (EU) 2019/904, OJ C 216, 7.6.2021 (regulation)
Regenerated cellulose such as viscose and lyocell is not chemically modified and is not plastic under the Single-Use Plastics Directive.
Forster P et al. (2021), The Earth's Energy Budget, Climate Feedbacks, and Climate Sensitivity, IPCC AR6 WGI Chapter 7 (report)
Nitrous oxide has a 100-year global warming potential of 273 and an atmospheric lifetime of 109 years (Table 7.15).
Lenzing AG (2021), Annual Report 2021: Product portfolio (report)
Lenzing's modal fibers are made from beech wood sourced in Austria and neighboring countries.
USDA Economic Research Service, Charts of Note: glyphosate effectiveness declines and dicamba-tolerant cotton (dataset)
Glyphosate use rose with herbicide-tolerant cotton; by 2019 glyphosate-resistant weeds were present in most US cotton states.
Vassilenko E et al. (2021), Domestic laundry and microfiber pollution: Exploring fiber shedding from consumer apparel textiles, PLOS ONE 16(7):e0250346 (study)
Woven nylon shed 27 mg of microfibers per kg per wash and polyester 161 mg/kg; lint traps retained up to 90% of polyester fibers and 46% of nylon fibers.
De Falco F et al. (2020), Microfiber Release to Water, Via Laundering, and to Air, via Everyday Use, Environmental Science & Technology 54(6) (study)
Wearing synthetic garments releases up to 400 microfibers per gram of fabric in 20 minutes of normal activity, and up to 4,000 per gram in a wash.
Global Organic Textile Standard (2020), GOTS detects evidence of organic cotton fraud in India, 30 October 2020 (standard)
GOTS found about 20,000 t of fake organic cotton with forged transaction certificates in India and banned 11 companies.
Kranthi KR, Stone GD (2020), Long-term impacts of Bt cotton in India, Nature Plants 6:188-196 (study)
After pink bollworm resistance and secondary pests, Indian farmers spend more on pesticides than before Bt cotton.
Kwiatkowski CF et al. (2020), Scientific Basis for Managing PFAS as a Chemical Class, Environmental Science & Technology Letters (review)
The PFAS class includes fluoropolymers and perfluoropolyethers.
van der Veen I et al. (2020), The effect of weathering on per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) from durable water repellent (DWR) clothing, Chemosphere 249:126100 (study)
After 300 h of simulated weathering, PFAA levels in most of 13 commercial DWR textiles rose 5- to more than 100-fold.
Zambrano MC et al. (2020), Aerobic biodegradation in freshwater and marine environments of textile microfibers generated in clothes laundering, Marine Pollution Bulletin 151:110826 (study)
Cotton and rayon yarns exceeded 70% biodegradation in lake water and activated sludge and about 50% in seawater; polyester did not appreciably degrade.
ISAAA (partly industry-funded) (2019), Biotech Crop Annual Update: Cotton 2019 (report)
Biotech cotton was planted on 25.7 million ha in 2019, 79% of global cotton area.
Schellenberger S et al. (2019), Highly fluorinated chemicals in functional textiles can be replaced by re-evaluating liquid repellency and end-user requirements, Journal of Cleaner Production 217:134-143 (study)
The best non-fluorinated DWRs matched short-chain fluorinated DWRs for water repellency; only fluorinated finishes repelled oils.
Schellenberger S et al. (2019), Release of Side-Chain Fluorinated Polymer-Containing Microplastic Fibers from Functional Textiles During Washing and First Estimates of Perfluoroalkyl Acid Emissions, Environmental Science & Technology 53(24):14329-14338 (study)
Washing released fibres carrying side-chain fluorinated polymers from C6 DWR fabrics.
Abdul-Bari MM et al. (2018), Synthetic Clothing and the Problem With Odor, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal 36(4):251-266 (study)
Worn nylon and polyester fabrics showed no overall difference in odor intensity.
Carney Almroth BM et al. (2018), Quantifying shedding of synthetic fibers from textiles; a source of microplastics released into the environment, Environmental Science and Pollution Research 25:1191-1199 (study)
Nylon, acrylic and polyester knits all shed, with no significant difference between them; worn nylon shed significantly more than new.
Favreau P et al. (2017), Multianalyte profiling of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in liquid commercial products, Chemosphere 171:491-501 (study)
PFAS were found in 60% of impregnating agents tested.
Geyer R, Jambeck JR, Law KL (2017), Production, use, and fate of all plastics ever made, Science Advances 3(7):e1700782 (study)
Polyester, polyamide (nylon) and acrylic fibers are counted as plastics: 1,000 Mt of the 8,300 Mt of plastics made since 1950, 600 Mt of them discarded.
W. L. Gore & Associates (2017), Gore Fabrics' Goal and Roadmap for Eliminating PFCs of Environmental Concern (report)
Gore's PTFE membrane was excluded from its definition of PFCs of environmental concern.
Hill PJ, Taylor M, Goswami P, Blackburn RS (2017), Substitution of PFAS chemistry in outdoor apparel and the impact on repellency performance, Chemosphere 181:500-507 (study)
Non-fluorinated finishes matched C8 and C6 PFAS finishes for water repellency but gave no oil repellency; PFAS on outdoor apparel called over-engineering.
PAN UK, Solidaridad, WWF (2017), Is cotton conquering its chemical addiction? A review of pesticide use in global cotton production (report)
In a 2016 survey in Benin, 42% of conventional cotton farmers reported acute pesticide poisoning symptoms in the previous year; cotton was 16.1% of insecticide sales by value in 2014.
Xue J, Liu W, Kannan K (2017), Bisphenols, Benzophenones, and Bisphenol A Diglycidyl Ethers in Textiles and Infant Clothing, Environmental Science & Technology 51(9):5279-5286 (study)
BPA was found in 82% of 77 textiles tested, up to 13,300 ng/g in a 97% polyester fabric marketed for infants.
Gremmel C, Frömel T, Knepper TP (2016), Systematic determination of perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in outdoor jackets, Chemosphere 160:173-180 (study)
PFOA was found in all 16 outdoor jackets bought in 2011/12.
Holmquist H et al. (2016), Properties, performance and associated hazards of state-of-the-art durable water repellent (DWR) chemistry for textile finishing, Environment International 91:251-264 (review)
DWRs fall into four groups: side-chain fluorinated polymers, silicones, hydrocarbons and other chemistries such as dendrimers; non-fluorinated DWRs lack oil repellency.
Luongo G et al. (2016), The washout effect during laundry on benzothiazole, benzotriazole, quinoline, and their derivatives in clothing textiles, Environmental Science and Pollution Research 23(3):2537-2548 (study)
After ten washes benzothiazoles fell about 50% and quinolines about 20% on average; considerable amounts remained.
Napper IE, Thompson RC (2016), Release of synthetic microplastic plastic fibres from domestic washing machines, Marine Pollution Bulletin 112 (study)
A 6 kg wash of polyester released roughly 496,000 fibres; a polyester-cotton blend about 138,000.
Target Corporation (2016), Target Statement on Welspun Global Brands, 19 August 2016 (report)
Welspun substituted non-Egyptian cotton in Fieldcrest Egyptian Cotton sheets sold at Target from August 2014 to July 2016; Target refunded buyers.
Swedish Chemicals Agency (2015), Antibacterial treatment of clothes: does it really have an effect? PM 8/15 (report)
Of antibacterial training garments and socks, 68% showed no antibacterial effect after 10 washes and 28% showed none before washing.
Kotthoff M et al. (2015), Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances in consumer products, Environmental Science and Pollution Research (study)
Among 115 consumer products, outdoor textiles had up to 19 µg/m² PFOA.
Callewaert C et al. (2014), Microbial Odor Profile of Polyester and Cotton Clothes after a Fitness Session, Applied and Environmental Microbiology 80(21) (study)
Polyester shirts smelled significantly more intense and less pleasant than cotton after exercise; odor-producing Micrococcus grew almost only on polyester.
US Federal Trade Commission, Threading Your Way Through the Labeling Requirements Under the Textile and Wool Acts (regulation)
FTC: viscose is the ISO name for the predominant form of rayon and either may be used; modal and viscose are permitted ISO names; Pima cotton and Egyptian cotton may be used when true; 100% Pima only if every fiber is Pima; a Pima blend must disclose its Pima content.
Luongo G, Thorsén G, Östman C (2014), Quinolines in clothing textiles: a source of human exposure and wastewater pollution? Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry 406(12):2747-2756 (study)
Quinolines were found in almost all of 31 garments and correlated mainly with polyester.
Textile Exchange and PE International (2014, industry-funded), The Life Cycle Assessment of Organic Cotton Fiber: A Global Average (report)
Organic cotton used 91% less blue (irrigation) water than a separate conventional LCA; the report notes the difference cannot be attributed exclusively to organic cultivation.
UNEP Global Environmental Alert Service (2014), The future of the Aral Sea lies in transboundary co-operation (report)
The Aral Sea covers about 10% of its former area; river diversion for cotton and rice irrigation accelerated in the 1960s.
7 U.S.C. §9011(9), Definition of extra long staple cotton (regulation)
US legal definition of ELS cotton: Barbadense varieties grown in designated irrigated US regions and ginned on a roller-type gin.
Akin DE (2013), Linen Most Useful: Perspectives on Structure, Chemistry, and Enzymes for Retting Flax, ISRN Biotechnology (review)
Linen is the long, strong bast fibre from flax stems; retting separates it from non-fibre tissue; most textile flax is dew (field) retted; scutching then hackling; linen samples in Swiss lake dwellings about 10,000 years old.
Forster D et al. (2013), Yield and economic performance of organic and conventional cotton-based farming systems: results from a field trial in India, PLOS ONE 8(12):e81039 (study)
During conversion organic cotton yielded 14% less on average (29% less in the first cycle) with 32% lower costs and similar gross margins.
Swedish Chemicals Agency (2013), Hazardous chemicals in textiles: report of a government assignment, Report 3/13 (report)
About 1,900 substances are used in textile production, 165 with harmonised hazard classifications; water-soluble residues are normally washed out, but not always.
US Consumer Product Safety Commission (2012), Children's Sleepwear Safety, Publication 5132 (report)
Sleepwear above nine months must be flame resistant or tight-fitting; flame resistance can come from inherently flame-resistant fabric that needs no chemical treatment.
Haigler CH, Betancur L, Stiff MR, Tuttle JR (2012), Cotton fiber: a powerful single-cell model for cell wall and cellulose research, Frontiers in Plant Science 3:104 (review)
Cotton fiber is a single cell of the seed epidermis; mature fiber is more than 90% crystalline cellulose.
Swedish Chemicals Agency (2012), Antibacterial substances leaking out with the washing water, PM 1/12 (report)
In 30 antibacterial textiles, about half or more of the triclosan and triclocarban washed out within ten washes; antibacterial treatment is marketed for odor prevention.
European Parliament and Council (2011), Regulation (EU) No 1007/2011, Annex IX: Agreed allowances used to calculate the mass of fibres (regulation)
EU conventional moisture allowances: flax (linen) 12.0%, viscose 13.0%, cotton 8.5%, nylon 6.25% staple / 5.75% filament, polyester 1.5%.
European Parliament and Council (2011), Regulation (EU) No 1007/2011 on textile fibre names and related labelling, Annex I (regulation)
EU legal definition: flax (or linen) is fibre obtained from the bast of the flax plant, Linum usitatissimum.
Kouser S, Qaim M (2011), Impact of Bt cotton on pesticide poisoning in smallholder agriculture: a panel data analysis, Ecological Economics 70(11):2105-2113 (study)
Bt cotton reduced pesticide applications in India by 50%, and by 70% for the most toxic chemicals.
Mekonnen MM, Hoekstra AY (2011), The green, blue and grey water footprint of crops and derived crop products, Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 15:1577-1600 (study)
Global average cotton lint water footprint 9,113 m³ per tonne (5,163 green, 2,955 blue, 996 grey), 1996–2005.
de Groot AC et al. (2010), Formaldehyde-releasers: relationship to formaldehyde contact allergy. Part 2: Formaldehyde-releasers in clothes: durable press chemical finishes, Contact Dermatitis 63(1):1-9 (review)
Early finishes caused many dermatitis cases; modern finishes release less, and the clinical relevance of current cases has not been proven.
US Government Accountability Office (2010), Formaldehyde in Textiles, GAO-10-875 (report)
Of 180 skin-contact textiles tested, 10 exceeded the strictest international limits (75.4 to 206.1 ppm), more than half of them durable press; no US legal limit on formaldehyde in clothing and labels don't identify treated items; washing often reduces formaldehyde but not always; allergic contact dermatitis is the main concern.
International Organization for Standardization (2010), ISO 2076:2010 Textiles — Man-made fibres — Generic names (standard)
Defines viscose (rayon) as cellulose fibre obtained by the viscose process, modal as cellulose fibre with high breaking strength and high wet modulus, and lyocell as solvent-spun cellulose fibre.
Reich HC, Warshaw EM (2010), Allergic contact dermatitis from formaldehyde textile resins, Dermatitis 21(2):65-76 (review)
Formaldehyde textile resins used for permanent press since the 1920s are potent sensitizers in some patients.
US Federal Trade Commission (2009), How to Avoid Bamboozling Your Customers (regulation)
FTC: most bamboo textile products, if not all, are rayon; label them as rayon made from bamboo.
Geranio L, Heuberger M, Nowack B (2009), The behavior of silver nanotextiles during washing, Environmental Science & Technology 43(21):8113-8118 (study)
Between under 1% and 45% of a fabric's silver was released in a single wash.
Trudel D et al. (2008), Estimating consumer exposure to PFOS and PFOA, Risk Analysis 28(2):251-269 (study)
Food and drinking water dominate overall PFOS and PFOA exposure; among consumer products, impregnation sprays and treated carpets are the main sources.
European Commission, Joint Research Centre (2007), Reference Document on Best Available Techniques in the Production of Polymers, Chapter 11: Viscose fibres (report)
Viscose process: wood pulp steeped in sodium hydroxide, reacted with carbon disulphide to cellulose xanthate, dissolved into viscose, spun into a sulphuric acid and zinc sulphate bath; CS2 and H2S are emitted; modal is a viscose fibre with improved characteristics; lyocell uses NMMO instead of CS2.
McQueen RH, Laing RM, Brooks HJL, Niven BE (2007), Odor Intensity in Apparel Fabrics and the Link with Bacterial Populations, Textile Research Journal 77(7):449-456 (study)
After wear, polyester fabrics rated high in odor intensity while cotton and wool rated mid to low.
Chapagain AK, Hoekstra AY, Savenije HHG, Gautam R (2006), The water footprint of cotton consumption, Ecological Economics 60(1):186-203 (study)
1997–2001: 2,720 L for one 250 g cotton T-shirt, of which 1,230 L irrigation (blue), 1,110 L rain (green) and 380 L dilution; cotton consumption used 256 Gm³ a year.
IPCC (2006), 2006 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, Vol. 3 Ch. 3 Chemical Industry Emissions (report)
All commercial caprolactam is made from toluene or benzene; nylon 6,6 accounts for the bulk of adipic acid use; uncontrolled adipic acid production emits about 300 kg N2O per tonne.
Mancini F et al. (2005), Acute pesticide poisoning among female and male cotton growers in India, International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health 11(3):221-232 (study)
83.6% of 323 recorded pesticide exposure events among Indian cotton growers were associated with signs of poisoning.
Modelli A et al. (2004), Biodegradation of chemically modified flax fibers in soil and in vitro with selected bacteria, Biomacromolecules 5(4) (study)
Native flax fibres biodegrade in soil under aerobic conditions (ASTM D5988) and in pure bacterial culture.
Cotton Incorporated (industry body) (2003), Technical Bulletin ISP 1006: Cotton Spun Yarns for Knit and Woven Fabrics (report)
Carding removes trash, short fibres and neps; combing removes more short fibres and improves yarn uniformity, softness, strength and lustre.
European Commission (2003), Reference Document on Best Available Techniques for the Textiles Industry (report)
Over 80% of finishing liquors are padded on and cured; a final wash tends to be avoided unless absolutely necessary; silicone softeners are increasing and are padded or sprayed on; fluorochemical repellents are permanent and the only ones giving oil repellency. Durable flame retardants react with the fibre to give permanent flame retardancy; non-durable ones are removed by laundering.
Gavin TP (2003), Clothing and thermoregulation during exercise, Sports Medicine 33(13):941-947 (review)
Fabric type did not measurably alter thermoregulation or thermal comfort during exercise in warm conditions.
US EPA (2000), PR Notice 2000-1: Applicability of the Treated Articles Exemption to Antimicrobial Pesticides (regulation)
Antimicrobial treated-article claims may protect only the product itself, not the user.
USDA Agricultural Marketing Service (2000), Grade Standards and Classification for American Pima Cotton, Federal Register, 9 June 2000 (regulation)
American Pima is extra long staple cotton of 1 1/4 to 1 9/16 inches, Gossypium barbadense, 3–5% of the US crop.
US Federal Trade Commission (1997), WestPoint-Stevens Inc. Agrees To Pay Civil Penalty of $360,000 (report)
Sheets and towels labeled all Pima contained only 6% to 50% Pima; $360,000 civil penalty.
US EPA (1995), AP-42 Compilation of Air Emission Factors, Section 6.9 Synthetic Fibers (report)
Nylon 6 comes from caprolactam, nylon 66 from adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine, PET from ethylene glycol and DMT or TPA; all are melt-spun from molten polymer.
Sweetnam PM, Taylor SW, Elwood PC (1987), Exposure to carbon disulphide and ischaemic heart disease in a viscose rayon factory, British Journal of Industrial Medicine 44(4):220-227 (study)
Viscose spinners exposed to CS2 had an ischaemic heart disease standardised mortality ratio of 172, rising with exposure.
Nurminen M, Hernberg S (1985), Effects of intervention on the cardiovascular mortality of workers exposed to carbon disulphide: a 15 year follow up, British Journal of Industrial Medicine 42(1):32-35 (study)
Finnish viscose rayon workers exposed to CS2 had 4.7-fold excess mortality from ischaemic and other heart disease; the excess disappeared after exposure was reduced.
US Consumer Product Safety Commission (1977), TRIS-Treated Children's Garments Ban (regulation)
CPSC banned Tris-treated children's clothing, saying Tris could be absorbed through the skin or by mouthing; about 18 million garments were on sale.
US Consumer Product Safety Commission (1977), CPSC Answers Consumer Inquiries On TRIS (report)
100% polyester, acetate and triacetate frequently required Tris to be flame resistant; CPSC advised washing new Tris-treated sleepwear before use.
16 CFR Part 1616, Standard for the Flammability of Children's Sleepwear: Sizes 7 Through 14 (regulation)
Sleepwear in sizes 7-14 must meet the flame test after 50 launderings unless tight-fitting.
16 CFR Part 1615, Standard for the Flammability of Children's Sleepwear: Sizes 0 Through 6X (regulation)
Children's sleepwear above 9 months up to size 6X must pass a flame test as produced and after 50 washes unless tight-fitting, in which case it carries a yellow not-flame-resistant hangtag.